Constructivism, Identity, and Discourse in Terrorism

 

Abstract

Terrorism is a phenomenon with a long history. Scholars from many different disciplines research terrorism. One of the disciplines studying the phenomenon of terrorism is International Relations. Significantly after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the discipline's interest in terrorism increased dramatically. However, increasing academic studies since the early 2000s did not lead to an increase in the contribution of the field to Terrorism Studies. The state-centric perspective of Neorealism and Neoliberalism is a fundamental reason behind this problem. Constructivism offers an alternative to the state-centric view. In this context, I examine the role of identity and discourse on terrorism by adopting the Constructivist perspective. Within this scope, the manifestos of eight different terrorists within three various terrorist organizations were examined. In parallel, news about the terrorists whose manifestos were examined was analyzed. Using text analysis, results suggest that both terrorists and the media divide the world into two "us" and "them." The results of this study provide interesting insights and empirical implications on International Relations. In this research, I give an overview of this research area. I then discuss this research's primary results and explain why the Constructivist approach, identity, and discourse are essential in terrorism research.

Link: https://jppol.ub.ac.id/index.php/jppol/article/view/183

DOI: 

https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.jppol.2022.004.02.01

2020 General Election in Taiwan

The results of the Taiwan general elections had been eagerly awaited for a long time. Especially the results of the local elections in 2018 made these general elections more remarkable. In addition, the protests in Hong Kong increased the importance of the Taiwan general elections.

In this article, I will first describe my observations in general elections. Then I will briefly explain the results of Twitter analysis about Taiwan general election, which I analyzed with the text analysis method.

OBSERVATION

In the morning, I started following the general elections in Taiwan. At the same time, I also tried to feel the political atmosphere inside country. Because of that reason, I talked with some of my Taiwanese friends. Around 7 PM, the election results began to be announced. Around 7.30pm, I first went to the KMT's headquarter in Kaohsiung. However, the KMT headquarter was quite empty. The most important reason for this was that DPP was ahead by far, according to the first results. Another important reason was that pan-blue party sympathizers did not trust their candidates.

Around 8 pm, the results began to be clear and I decided to go to the DPP's rally. The rally area was quite crowded. It was as crowded as the KMT's rally, which won last year's local elections. The excitement and joy of people in the rally area was quite interesting.

As a result of the local elections in 2018, the Green Party(DPP) lost the local elections. As a result of the defeat, the DPP leader and Taiwanese president Tsai Ing-Wen resigned from party leadership. But Tsai Ing-Wen, who withdrew her resignation, won this year's general elections.

With the results, the KMT candidate Han Kuo-yu made his speech first. About an hour later, Tsai Ing wen, the winner of the election, made her speech. However, the first thing that caught my attention during this speech was that Tsai Ing Wen spoke quite calmly and seriously. Unlike Ing Wen, DPP sympathizers were extremely happy.

In her speech, Ing wen praised Taiwan's democracy and stated that relations with China will continue in the same way.

TWITTER ANALYSIS

2000 English tweets about Taiwanese general elections between the January 1st and January 20th were examined with R computer program. First, the most commonly used words were found in these 2000 tweets. The words Economy, Growth, Hong Kong Protests, independence and victory are the most used words in 2000 tweets.

Most of the tweets are positive about Ing-Wen and DPP's victory.

Words like freedom, peaceful, democracy, growth and hope are the most commonly used positive words. Words such as infrared, protest, fight and Xi Jinping are the most commonly used negative words. 

Secondly, sentiment analysis of these 2000 tweets was analyzed. The highest sentiment in these tweets is trust. Then comes anticipation and fear.

Words like president, democracy, freedom, integrity, alliance and brilliant are the words with the highest trust sentiment. Words like young, vote, result and prevention are the words with the highest sense of anticipation. Words like Fight, Interfere, and Xi Jinping are the words with the highest sense of fear.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, DPP sympathizers were very happy and hopeful at the DPP rally. Twitter analysis results gave similar results.

However, despite all this happiness and anticipation, it is a matter of curiosity how China-Taiwan relations and Ing-Wen's attitude towards China will change and shape.

Terrorism Dilemma

Terrorism has been one of the most remarkable issues in recent years. Many scholars argue about terrorism. However, the lack of a definition of terrorism complicates the issue.

The most acceptable definition of terror in the world is the CIA's definition of terror. This study uses the CIA's definition of terrorism. According to Central Intelligence Agency (2007), terrorism means premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.

This definition is quite clear. Based on this definition, the YPG in Syria is a terrorist organization. However, many Western countries and the United States do not recognize YPG as terrorists. But this organization has caused the deaths of many innocent people in Turkey. Nevertheless, the media of many countries continue to have positive news about this organization. In addition, there are also positive news about the terrorist organization on Twitter.

For this purpose, sentiment and polarity analysis related with YPG in CNN, The New York Times and Twitter was performed.

                       

      

                                      Figure 1: Polarity result of CNN

Firstly, CNN's latest news about ypg is examined. The analysis revealed that the CNN's news was very positive about YPG. The most commonly used sentiment in the news about YPG is trust.

                               

                                          Figure 2: Sentiment result of CNN

            Secondly, the last news of the new york times about ypg was analyzed. Similar results were obtained with CNN. The new york times ypg news is also very positive. The most commonly used sentiment in the New York Times’ news about YPG is trust.

                                                Figure 3: Polarity result of New York Times

                                               Figure 4: Sentiment result of New York Times

Finally, the last 100 tweets about YPG on Twitter were analyzed. Twitter also has positive tweets about YPG, like CNN and New York Time. The most commonly used sentiment in twitter about YPG is fear. Tweets about ISIS raise the fear rate. That’s why fear was the most common sentiment in this anaysis.

                                      Figure 5: Polarity result of Tweets

                                      Figure 6: Sentiment result of Tweets

As seen above, there are positive views on YPG, which many countries recognize as terrorist organizations, in the media and social media. 

GOOD AND BAD TERRORIST

Nowadays, the world is haunted by a ghost, the ghost of terrorism. In particular, this ghost has frightened most of the people in the world after the twin towers attack in the United States on September 11, 2001.

In recent years, terrorism has been one of the most important threats in the world. This terrible threat threatens all countries in the world.

All countries must fight together against this big threat. Unfortunately, because of the lack of a common definition of terrorism, the definition of terrorism varies from country to country. This difference in definition affects all countries' war against terrorism.

The most acceptable definition of terror in the world is the CIA's definition of terror. This study uses the CIA's definition of terrorism. According to Central Intelligence Agency (2007), terrorism means premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.

This definition is quite clear. Based on this definition, the YPG in Syria is a terrorist organization. However, many Western countries and the United States do not recognize YPG as terrorists. But this organization has caused the deaths of many innocent people in Turkey. Nevertheless, the media of many countries continue to have positive news about this organization.

                                          Pic: 2018 YPG suicide attack in Turkey

In this study, CNN and Reuters' news about YPG between 2015-2018 were analyzed. First, CNN news was examined. In the beginning, the number of words were used in CNN about YPG was examined. The result of this examination is as follows;

             Secondly, the schema of the most used words was prepared. According to this scheme, some of the most used words are positive words such as women, life and freedom.

              Finally, sentiment analysis was performed. As a result of this analysis, it was found that the majority of the words used about YPG were positive.

            Secondly, Reuters news about YPG were examined. As a result of the analysis of the Reuters news also showed a positive attitude toward YPG like CNN. Some of the most used words in reuters are positive words such as women, equality and freedom.

           Sentiment analysis was performed also for reuters and based on the result of this analysis, it was found that the majority of the words used in reuters about YPG were positive.

            As can be seen, there are two types of terrorists. The first is bad and dangerous terrorist and the second one is good and beneficial terrorist. However, it should not be forgotten that they are both terrorists and somewhere in the world innocent people dies everyday because of these terrorist organizations.

What is going on in Venezuela?(3)

Just before dawn on 30 April, another effort at a army coup was initiated by the Venezuelan resistance. The botched coup attempt seemed to have failed by the end of the day, with one of its leaders seeking refuge in the Spanish embassy, 25 of the soldiers involved asylum seeking refuge in the Brazilian embassy and Juan Guaidó in hiding or running.

Many newspapers reported on this issue. In addition, many social media users posted their view on this issue. Some newspapers made positive news about Guaido and some newspapers made positive statements about Maduro. Similarly, social media posts are divided into two.

Therefore, the attitudes of some selected newspapers were examined. These newspapers are CNN, BBC, Sputnik, and Euronews.

In the same way, the most popular 1000 tweets were also examined.

The analyzes were performed using the R programming language.

Firstly, twitter was analyzed. The most popular 1000 tweets during may about Venezuela were reviewed. 

The most commonly used words are Guaido, president and America. There is an objectivity in tweets. Only English tweets were examined. Therefore, these results do not fully reflect the truth.

Secondly the French newspaper euronews was examined. The most used words in the news are Maduro and support. The most used words except Maduro and support are Guaidó, Guaido, opposition and military.

There are 20 positive and 26 negative words related to Maduro and Venezuela in the Euronews newspaper's report on the failed coup in Venezuela. With a simple operation, this news is a negative news about Maduro and Venezuela.

Thirdly the American newspaper CNN was examined. The most used words in the news are Maduro and Guaido. 

 
CNN's report on the failed coup in Venezuela has 52 positive, 55 negative words about the situation in Venezuela and Maduro. With a simple operation, this news is a negative news about Maduro.

The fourth one is the BBC newspaper. In this newspaper, the most used words are Maduro, options and venezuela. After these words Trump, military and Pompeo are the most commonly used words.

There are 16 positive, 54 negative words about the current situation in Venezuela and Maduro in the news of the BBC about failed coup in Venezuela. With a simple process, this news is a negative news about Maduro.

The last newspaper is the Russian Sputnik newspaper. In this newspaper, the most used words are Maduro, President, Venezuela and Guaido. After these words Russia and opposition are the most commonly used words.

Sputnik reported a positive news about Maduro. In a simple process, it seems that the newspaper supports Maduro and Russia's Venezuelan policies.

As it is seen, these newspapers are far from being neutral about Venezuela. Unfortunately, newspapers reflect the attitudes of the countries in which they are located. Therefore, it is very difficult to reach neutral and truth news about Venezuela nowadays.

The code file used can be downloaded from here: https://dosya.co/06f1ygnrj6p6/kod.txt.html

LINK: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_OkPICN5Bck